“I am shocked by the situation. But he is determined. Betrayed by the British, attacked by the Germans. Exhausted in winter. May courage be with us! Let’s die like brave men!”
Ioannis Metaxas (January 5, 1941)
“On October 28, 1940, Greece was given a three-hour deadline to decide on war or peace, but even if three days, three weeks or three years had been given, the answer would have been unchanged.
For centuries, Greece has been an example of honor. When the whole world lost all hope, the Greek people dared to doubt the invincibility of the German monster, who raised the proud spirit of Freedom against himself.”
Franklin D. Roosevelt, President of the United States 1933-1945
“Until now, we have said that the Greeks fight like heroes. Now let’s say: heroes fight like Greeks.”
Winston Churchill (from a speech he gave on BBC Radio in the early days of the Greco-Italian War)
“You fought without weapons and won… the weak against the strong… We are grateful to you for giving us the time to protect our homeland.… As Russians… as people, we thank you…
Joseph Stalin (radio station “Moscow”, after Hitler’s attack on the USSR)
“It is no exaggeration to say that Greece gave the plans of Germany to be forced Germany to delay the attack on Russia for six weeks… Wonder what it would be like the place of the USSR without the…”
Sir Harold George Alexander, British Commander-in-Chief (speech to the British Parliament, October 1941)
“For the sake of history, I must note that only the Greeks of all our opponents fought with the greatest courage, without fear of death…”
Adolf Hitler (Reichstag, May 1941)
“The war with Greece proved that there is nothing predetermined in military affairs and that surprises are always waiting for us.”
Benito Mussolini (from a speech delivered on October 5, 1941)
Many readers of Cyprus Butterfly are familiar with the date of October 28 and the Day of “Ohi”, however, not everyone is well aware of the figure of the Greek leader Ioannis Metaxas, a general of the Greek army, prime minister, dictator, intellectual, who went down in history as the man who said “No!” to the Italian aggressor.
In this short blog, we will try to briefly talk about such a complex and ambiguous figure of Greek history.
Early years
Ioannis Metaxas was born on the island of Ithaca on April 12, 1871 and spent his childhood in Kefalonia. His family roots go back to the Byzantine nobility who lived in Constantinople. The ancestor of the Metaxas family was Marcos Antonios, an advisor and associate of the Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos.
In 1879, when little Ioannis was 8 years old, the Metaxas family moved from Ithaca to the neighboring island of Kefalonia. In the capital of Kefalonia, Argostoli, Metaxas is graduating from high school. In 1885, he entered the Greek Military Academy, from which he graduated with honors with the rank of second lieutenant.
At the end of the 19th century, the “idea of Great Greece” (Megaloidea) became popular among the Greek population. In 1894, a number of young nationalist officers created a secret organization, the National Society (εθνική ΕταιρείΑ). Ioannis Metaxas, along with other officers, artists and intellectuals, joins this organization.
In 1897, Metaxas took part in the fighting against the Turks (the Thessalian campaign), and then continued his studies in Germany at the Prussian Academy.
In 1909, Metaxas married Lela Hatzioannou. In 1912, shortly before the Balkan Wars, Greek Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos appointed Metaxas to negotiate a military treaty between Greece and Bulgaria, sending him to Sofia.
Since the beginning of the Balkan Wars, Metaxas has participated in all the battles of the First Balkan War and negotiated the surrender of Thessaloniki on October 26, 1912. In December 1912, he and Venizelos took part in negotiations on the terms of a peace agreement with Turkey.
In April 1913, he was awarded the rank of major, after which he took part in the Second Balkan War, where he received the rank of lieutenant colonel. In October 1913, the King of Greece awarded Metaxas with the highest state award — the Order of the Savior.
Disagreements between King Constantine I and Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos lead to a national schism. Constantine abdicates the throne, and Eleftherios Venizelos takes control of the Greek government. The Venizelos regime has been dubbed the “dictatorship in the parliamentary mantle”, and the persecution of officers, judges, priests and police officers begins. Many of Venizelos’ opponents are being expelled from Greece. In particular, Metaxas follows the king into exile in Corsica, and later finds himself with his family in Italy.
In 1920, Venizelos loses the election. Metaxas returns to Greece, where he is reinstated in the army with the rank of Major General. However, he strongly opposed the continuation of the Greek campaign in Asia Minor and resigned on December 28, 1920. Metaxas argued that Greece did not have the logistical capabilities and economic resources to support the army in the interior of Anatolia, which led him into conflict with King Constantine I. On September 11, 1922, after the defeat of the Greek troops in Asia Minor, the king was again forced to leave the country as a result of the revolution. Metaxas began to get involved in the political struggle and on October 12, 1922 founded the “Party of Freethinkers”.
However, in October 1923, another unsuccessful attempt to restore the monarchy forced Metaxas to leave Greece again. The monarchy was abolished, and the Second Greek Republic was proclaimed in March 1924.
Metaxas returned to Greece again and even took part in the 1926 elections, in which he took 15.78% of the vote and 52 seats in parliament, which puts him on a par with another monarchist party, the People’s Party. Metaxas receives the portfolio of Minister of Communications in the government of Alexandros Zaimis.
In the 1928 elections, the Metaxas party received only 5.3% and one seat in parliament. And in 1932 and 1933, the percentage of support drops to 1.59%. During these years, Metaxas occupied the chair of the Minister of Internal Affairs in the cabinet of Panagis Tsaldaris.
The main reason for the electoral failure was Metaxas’ firm position in support of the monarchical regime and rejection of the republic. In 1933, an attempt was made on Venizelos. In his newspaper Hellenki, Metaxas approves of the assassination attempt, expressing regret only that this attempt failed.
On March 1, 1935, a coup attempt was made in Thessaloniki by Venizelist officers, allegedly due to the slow pace of the investigation of the assassination attempt, which was almost crowned with success. As a result of the failed coup, liberals began to be seen as provocateurs of rebellion and chaos, and many began to support the Metaxas line.
In response to the fears of the impoverished people who rebelled as a result of the revolution, Metaxas calls for a “new order” in Greece, arguing that the Great Depression proved the failure of democracy and fascism was the solution. Metaxas, as well as a number of other monarchists, are forming a Monarchical Union and demanding that Greek Prime Minister Panagis Tsaldaris hold a referendum on the restoration of the monarchy.
At the initiative of the Communist Party of Greece, back in 1934, the Popular Front was created (a coalition of parties mainly of the left or centrist persuasion), which had 15 seats in parliament. At the end of the elections, the KKE held talks with both the People’s Party and the Liberal Party. Finally, on February 19, 1936, the Sofulis—Sklavenas agreement was secretly signed between the Liberals and the Popular Front. In practice, this agreement meant that the KKE and the “Liberal Party” formed the “People’s Front”, as defined by the strategy of the Comintern at that time.
On March 5, 1936, Ioannis Metaxas was appointed Minister of Defense in the Government of Konstantinos Demertsis. On March 14, he takes office as Minister of Aviation and Deputy Prime Minister. On December 13, the Prime Minister of Greece dies, and King George appoints Ioannis Metaxas as interim Prime Minister.
On April 30, Parliament suspends its work until September 30, allowing the government to govern the country through legislative provisions, provided that a 40-member parliamentary committee oversees this. In the first half of 1936, such prominent Greek political figures as Georgios Kondilis, Eleftherios Venizelos, Panagis Tsaldaris, Konstantinos Demertsis died. This played a key role in the establishment of the Metaxas dictatorship.
A general strike begins in Thessaloniki on May 13, which ends with the shooting of strikers. The Communists and the Popular Front publicly condemn the government’s actions and call on the people and the army to rise up to fight. The bourgeois parties feared a revolution that could lead to the overthrow of power and the establishment of a communist regime like the Stalinist USSR. After these events, Ioannis Metaxas raises the issue of dictatorial rule at a meeting with the king.
In the evening (22:00) on August 4, 1936, Metaxas went to the palace to meet with King George. Together with him, there were decrees suspending some of the main articles of the constitution and dissolving Parliament on the occasion of the general strike announced by the trade unions on August 5. That same night, Metaxas called an emergency Cabinet meeting at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Despite the reaction and resignation of some ministers, Metaxas managed to suspend important articles of the constitution and, with the support of the King, established a dictatorship on August 4.
Metaxas wrote in his diary:
“On August 4, Greece became an anti-communist, anti-parliamentary, totalitarian state. The state is based on agriculture and labor, and therefore on the anti-rich. Of course, he doesn’t have a specific party to run. But all the people in the party were there, except the irreparable communists and the old reactionary members of the party.”
The August 4th Regime and the Third Greek Civilization
Many see the influence of fascism and National Socialism in the Metaxas regime. But it is worth noting that this is far from the case.
He did not accept the racial dispute of National Socialism. Unlike fascism, the Metaxas dictatorship did not have an imperialist discourse. Moreover, Metaxas went against the Megaloidea and always opposed the invasion of Asia Minor.
Greece was often referred to as a “new state” in official speeches by Metaxas. He stood firmly on the positions of “Patriotism, faith, family.” Metaxas looked for the origins of the “new state” in the history of Greece. He was sure that Hellenic nationalism would activate “the pagan values of Ancient Greece, especially Sparta, along with the Christian values of the Roman Empire.” Ancient Macedonia was also celebrated as the first political unifier of the Hellenes. The attempt to make the dictatorship universally recognized and to instill its ideology in the youth was the creation of the “National Youth Organization of Greece”.
The Minoan double axe was chosen as the symbol of the youth of Greece — as an element of the “first civilization of Greece”. Membership in the “National Youth Organization of Greece” was not mandatory.
The Metaxas government has implemented a number of reforms that have made it super-popular among the people. Many elements of this program remain in the economic policy of modern Greece.
Internal reforms of Metaxas
— The Institute of Social Insurance (IKA), which still exists, was founded.
— The State employment Agency and the Unemployment insurance fund have been established.
— For the first time in Greece, an 8-hour working day and a 5-day working week have been introduced.
— Holidays with full payment are established, as well as a guaranteed two-week paid vacation or two weeks of double earnings instead of the actual vacation.
— New restrictive rules have been established for the dismissal of employees.
— Stricter occupational safety standards and minimum hourly wages have been introduced.
— Child labor is prohibited and child care centers have been built.
— Maternity leave for women has been introduced for the first time.
— Pension provision has been organized.
— The airports of Thessaloniki and Crete have been built.
— The Piraeus—Kifissia railway has been developed.
— Houses have been built for refugees from Asia Minor.
— The first national parks in Greece have been created, including the Olympus National Park, and a wildlife protection system is being introduced for the first time.
— In 1938, the acreage of Greece doubled: from 12,452,980 acres to 25,841,400.
— For the first time, theatrical performances are organized in ancient amphitheaters.
— 1,739 new schools have been built and 3,288 teachers have been hired.
— The development of Greek tourism and the organization of the promotion of the country abroad.
— The Greek national debt has been cancelled.
— A system of protection and restoration of every archaeological monument in the country has been established.
— For the first time, the official fight against narcotic drugs begins.
— A sharp drop in crime. For example, the number of murders has decreased from 360 to 67 in five years.
— The drachma, which suffered from high inflation, has been stabilized. Using the newfound strength of the currency, the Metaxas Government has embarked on major public works programs (such as the Elinikon International Airport), including the construction of drainage systems, railways, improvement of conventional roads, modernization of telecommunications infrastructure.
These reforms have led to a marked increase in per capita income and a temporary decrease in unemployment in Greece.
Foreign policy
In the field of foreign policy, Metaxas tried to balance between Great Britain, which was the dominant naval power in the Mediterranean and to which the king’s sympathies were directed, and Germany, with whose totalitarian regime there was an ideological connection and very close economic ties.
In 1938, Metaxas proposed to the British government to conclude a defense alliance, which the British diplomatically refused, since they had no reason to doubt Greece’s position in the impending war. On the contrary, relations with the German government were formal, since Greece received many benefits from German financial investments. Italy’s position due to constant challenges has also played an important role in diplomatic relations between the two countries.
Another important aspect of the regime’s foreign policy was the continuation of good relations and rapprochement with Turkey, which began during the reign of Eleftherios Venizelos as Prime Minister. An additional reason that contributed to this policy was the Italian presence on the Dodecanese in the Aegean Sea.
October 28, 1940 — Ohi Day
On October 28, 1940, at 3 a.m., through the Italian Ambassador in Athens Emanuele Grazzi, the Italian government sent an ultimatum to Greece. The ultimatum was delivered to Ioannis Metaxas at his home in Kifissia.
Italy demanded the free passage of the Italian army from the Greek-Albanian border in order to occupy strategic points of the Kingdom of Greece, such as ports, airports and others, in order to supply its military forces for subsequent transfer to Africa.
After reading the text, Metaxas looked at the Italian ambassador and replied in French (the official diplomatic language of the time) with the historical phrase: “Alors, c’est la guerre” (“So this is war”), thereby expressing a negative position regarding Italy’s demands.
This is how Emanuele Grazzi himself describes this scene in his memoirs, published in 1945:
“Mr. Prime Minister, I have an order to give you this message,” and handed him the document. I watched the excitement in his eyes and hands. In a firm voice, looking into my eyes, Metaxas told me: “This is a war.” I replied that this could have been avoided. He replied: “Yes.” I added, “If General Papagos…” but Metaxas interrupted me and said, “No.” I left filled with the deepest admiration for this elder, who preferred sacrifice to submission.”
The word “No” was picked up by the Greek press, as it was the most understandable term for the people. For the first time, the legendary “Ohi” was used as an editorial in the Greek newspaper “The Future of Greece” (ελληνικό ΜέΛλον’) on October 30, 1940.
At 5:30 a.m., Italy launched an invasion of Greek territory (the ultimatum provided that the attack would begin at 6:00 a.m.) in Epirus — Greece began a defensive position.
During his lifetime, Ioannis Metaxas witnessed the victory of the Greek army. Greek troops completely repelled the Italian invasion and returned Italian soldiers back to Albania, where the invasion began. In March 1941, having received reinforcements, under the direct supervision of Benito Mussolini, the Italian army tried to launch a counteroffensive. The Greek army repelled the offensive and was already 10 km from the strategic Albanian port of Vlora. On April 6, 1941, the Third Reich intervened in the conflict, launching the Greek Operation.
Ioannis Metaxas died in his modest family home on Danglis Street in the city of Kifissia near Athens at 5:30 a.m. (the official bulletin of the attending physicians indicates the time of death at 6:00 a.m.) on January 29, 1941.
The cause of death, as indicated in the official certificate and the official medical bulletin, was sepsis after infection with streptococcus.
Metaxas’ death is shrouded in mystery. There is a version that the general was poisoned by the British special services. However, Metaxas’ eldest daughter, Lukia (Lulu), reported in an undated handwritten statement that her father suffered intestinal or internal bleeding in the spring of 1940, at least six months before his death, possibly due to atherosclerosis.
Nurse Nana Foka told her version of events in November 1996. A soldier of the British armed forces arrived on Tuesday, January 29, with an oxygen tank. Metaxas was dying, and it was decided to connect it to the balloon. After this was done, the British mechanic fell asleep on the next bed. Metaxas died without regaining consciousness. After the conclusion of his death was made, the British serviceman took an oxygen cylinder and left the room.
It is possible that this series of events gave rise to rumors about the murder of Metaxas by the British.
Heritage
The only monument to Ioannis Metaxas was erected in Argostoli on his native island of Kefalonia. However, it was demolished in 1981 and thrown into the trash on the outskirts of the city. The right-wing Golden Dawn party made a proposal to restore this monument and even collected the necessary number of signatures from concerned residents of the city.
“Why is the monument to the man who has done so much for Greece, thanks to whom the whole of Greece celebrates the holiday on October 28 and whose name the main embankment of Argostoli bears, lying in the open air in the trash? We are ready to restore it with our own funds,” said the members of the Golden Dawn.
However, the city hall refused.
Recall that the central square of Nicosia bore the proud name of Ioannis Metaxas until 1974.
Photo: metaxas-project.com
https://cyprusbutterfly.com.cy/blogs/ioannis-metaksas-chelovek-kotoryy-skazal
